• UK peer reviewed publications,

• Published internationally not in English

Fone et al (2014) in a longitudinal analysis (10) suggests that social cohesion in neighbourhoods has a greater impact on mental health than the neighbourhood being economically deprived. The explanation is that cohesive neighbourhoods demonstrate a tangible increase in support and interaction, therefore mitigating the negative effects of poverty.

Friendships and exchange of favours with neighbours facilitate social networks and improve mental wellness. A sense of trust, a feeling of belonging to the local community and feeling valued appear to be the strongest predictors of both individual and subjective wellbeing. The “exchange of favours” with neighbours facilitates social interaction and may increase levels of social cohesion [13] based on the social bonds that help neighbours achieve the social ties that enable a community to achieve a stable and predictable public environment [14]. Furthermore, people who think they know people within their area and have social connections as well as trust in others will report “good health” significantly more often than those who don’t [15]. Social connectivity appears to differentiate attitudes to wellbeing with “Neighbours who look out for each other” strongly associated with social cohesion (and wellbeing) and conversely “People drunk/rowdy in public” and “Troublesome neighbours” reflecting social disorder and disharmony [16]. Similarly, perceived social/environmental incivilities such as antisocial behaviour, resulted in reduced wellbeing [17]. This is where a higher proportion of older adults (over 65) and higher levels of social housing, worklessness and concentrations of asylum seekers, tend to result in fewer opportunities for socialisation, and contact between communities [18].

Public space provides opportunities for people to build social connections with one another, foster pride in the area, relax and reflect. Through community organisation and participation i.e., formal volunteering opportunities, people are able to support their own and others’ resilience, and improve the accessibility, use, look and feel of the public space they share with one another [19]. A fulfilling community life can also impact physical and mental health, which are core determinants of wellbeing [20]. Social wellbeing derived from formal structured and organised activity is social capital, where the acquired benefits associated with local engagement and participation, improve health and life expectancy [21]. Urban spaces designated as “meeting places” are important to build ties and promote reciprocal trust, solidarity, and civic participation e.g., club membership was associated with increased wellbeing for older people [17]. These spaces hold intrinsic value for young people too, providing them with a sense of wellbeing and belonging [22]. Residents suggested that social networks and friendship circles increased where there were purposeful attempts, such as bringing groups of people together for social activities, increasing social connectedness among groups [23]. Further research into the positive effects of green space in particular is warranted, particularly with reference to environmental improvements and urban planning [24].

This aspect of social wellbeing was the least investigated and there is less direct evidence that shared decision making and orientation to better outcomes for all at a local or community level may be a helpful balance to economic factors [25]. A common good could be said to be “better health” and where individual social capital is greatest it is positively associated with better health [26]. This social return on investment in community is specifically linked to a study about not belonging where others do and investigates the impact of social interactions across communities on health and mental wellbeing in Wales. It demonstrates both a positive relationship and mental health outcomes in more cohesive communities but also identifies the risk for marginalised people and sub-groups who are segregated from cohesive communities [26]. Where better health is an accepted “good,” there is a suggestion that social wellbeing outcome tracking can lead to improvements in participants’ outcomes and experience of projects and services. The suggestion here is that it promotes open communication and dialogue with practitioners [27]. The continuous assessment of individual wellbeing and quality of life is both advantageous to a service and to individuals who reflect on their own perceptions of how support is delivered for them.

Socialisation and support at a neighbourhood level have the potential to have a positive impact on social cohesion but also offer a potential mechanism to navigate adverse effects of neighbourhood deprivation [10]. For example, in London, residents suggested that coping with a deprived and hostile environment is balanced with the positive aspects of life on an inner-city estate that include involvement in projects, self-help groups, tenants’ groups as well as courses and toy libraries [20]. Improvements in the economic circumstances of local populations, and investments in resources in local areas such as housing, will minimise perceptions of competition for resources and improve community relations [18].

There was a racial dimension to the definition of social wellbeing that could be defined within inner city, “Black neighbourhoods” where the social capital generated among black youths is both advantageous to social cohesion and wellbeing in the group and somewhat limiting in terms of restricting their activity to a segregated area [22]. Similarly, wellbeing generated within different age groups, such as older adults, was based on specific initiatives to build social relations for the purpose of health and wellbeing improvements [28]. In Scotland, the Community Empowerment Act (2015) [29] is identified as a policy that opened opportunities for “asset-based” work; aiming to empower community bodies to strengthen the communities’ voice in decision making. This “capabilities approach” to wellbeing is central to community development, suggesting that wellbeing is derived from participation and association [30] and residents benefit from new social connections that have been made, particularly with respect to their health and wellbeing.

At a local level, ethnic difference is not a barrier to social wellbeing and cohesion [20] and this contrasts with Putnam’s earlier work suggesting that ethnic diversity reduces social capital [21]. In the long-term, increases in ethnic diversity are likely to promote contact, tolerance and understanding and improve social cohesion [18]. For example, neighbourhood ethnic diversity in London seems to be positively related to the perceived social cohesion of neighbourhood residents [14]. Discourses about how cultural/ethnic/racial identity are promoted are important to address in relation to social wellbeing and multi-culturalism [20]. Additionally, area classification indicates that areas with the lowest levels of social cohesion are those with below average levels of migration and population turnover [18].

Areas with high belonging and apparent cohesion may hide individuals or small groups that experience alienation or isolation, for example, migrant families or older white households within multi-cultural communities. For example, lower physical health-related quality of life is associated with ageing, living in an urban area, and being retired [31]. Where an area is dominated by a particular social group, the health outcomes of the minority may be adversely affected: “where those who do not belong to that group would be keenly aware of the fact” [26]. Risks associated with social wellbeing in low deprivation areas can’t been ignored either, individual or group anxieties and “irritations,” such as gossip among neighbours, can exist and can surface in communities creating “paranoia” [16]. Some of the worst outcomes for small and segregated groups can occur when they are unable to overcome the alienation and segregation they experience. Crime and local incivilities are particularly damaging to social cohesion [18].Community identities and collective narratives are important to establish a shared sense of belonging that help people to feel secure and connected to their community [19] and build resilience to adversity tends to involve notions of friendship, tolerance, and openness [20].