SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Public Health Rev.
Machine Learning Used in Communicable Disease Control: A Scoping Review
- SB
Sharon Birdi 1
- AP
Atushi Patel 1
- RR
Roxana Rabet 1
- NS
Navreet Singh 1
- SD
Steve Durant 1
- TV
Tina Vosoughi 1
- FK
Faris Kapra 1,2
- MS
Mahek Shergill 1,2
- EM
Elnathan Mesfin 1
- CZ
Carolyn Ziegler 3
- SA
Shehzad Ali 4,5,6
- DB
David Buckeridge 7
- MG
Marzyeh Ghassemi 8,9
- JG
Jennifer Gibson 10
- AJ
Ava John-Baptiste 4,11,12
- JM
Jillian Macklin 1,13
- MM
Melissa Mccradden 14,15,16
- KM
Kwame Mckenzie 17,18
- SM
Sharmistha Mishra 19,20,21,22,23,24
- PN
Parisa Naraei 25
- AO
Akwasi Owusu-Bempah 26
- LR
Laura Rosella 16,27
- JS
James Shaw 28
- RU
Ross Upshur 29,16,10
- AD
Andrew D. Pinto 1,30,31,16
1. Upstream Lab, MAP/Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, Canada, Ontario
2. Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada, Ontario, L8S4L8
3. Library Services, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, Canada
4. Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada, Ontario, N6A 5C1
5. Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of York, Heslington, United Kingdom, Yorkshire and the Humber, YO10 5DD
6. WHO Collaborating Centre for Knowledge Translation and Health Technology Assessment in Health Equity, Ottawa, Canada
7. Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, School of Population and Global Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, Quebec, H3A 1A2
8. Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, School of Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States, Massachusetts, 02139
9. Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, School of Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States, Maryland
10. Joint Centre for Bioethics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
11. Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada, Ontario, N6A 5A5
12. Schulich Interfaculty Program in Public Health, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada, Ontario, N6G 2M1
13. Undergraduate Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, Ontario
14. Department of Bioethics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada
15. Genetics & Genome Biology, SickKids Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
16. Division of Clinical Public Health, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, Ontario, M5T 3M7
17. Wellesley Institute, Toronto, Canada
18. The Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada, Ontario
19. Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, Ontario, M5S 3H2
20. MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Toronto, Canada, Ontario, M5B 1W8
21. Institute of Medical Science, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, Ontario, M5S 1A8
22. Institute of Health Policy Management and Evaluation, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, Ontario, ON M5T 3M6
23. Department of Epidemiology, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, Ontario, M5T 3M7
24. Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences, Toronto, Canada
25. Department of Computer Science, Toronto Metropolitan University, Toronto, Canada
26. Department of Sociology, Faculty of Arts and Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, Ontario, M5S 2J4
27. Institute for Better Health, Trillium Health Partners, Toronto, Canada
28. Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, Ontario, M5G 1V7
29. Department of Family and Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, Ontario, M5G 1V7
30. Department of Family and Community Medicine, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Canada, Ontario
31. Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, Ontario, M5S 1A8
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Abstract
Introduction: Communicable diseases continue to threaten global health, with COVID-19 as a recent example. Rapid data analysis using machine learning (ML) is crucial for detecting and controlling outbreaks. We aimed to identify how ML approaches have been applied to achieve public health objectives in communicable disease control and to explore algorithmic biases in model design, training, and implementation, and strategies to mitigate these biases. Methods: We searched MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Central, Scopus, ACM DL, INSPEC, and Web of Science to identify peer-reviewed studies from January 1, 2000, to July 15, 2022. Included studies applied ML models in population and public health to address ten communicable diseases with high prevalence.. Results: 28,378 citations were retrieved, and 209 met our inclusion criteria. ML for communicable diseases has risen since 2020, particularly for SARS-CoV-2 (n=177), followed by malaria, HIV, and tuberculosis. 18 studies (8.61%) considered bias, and only eleven implemented mitigation strategies. Conclusion: A growing number of studies used ML for disease surveillance. Addressing biases in model design should be prioritized in future research to improve reliability and equity in public health outcomes.
Summary
Keywords
Public Health, communicable diseases, Machine learning, Artificial intelligence, Population Health
Received
21 October 2024
Accepted
26 January 2026
Copyright
© 2026 Birdi, Patel, Rabet, Singh, Durant, Vosoughi, Kapra, Shergill, Mesfin, Ziegler, Ali, Buckeridge, Ghassemi, Gibson, John-Baptiste, Macklin, Mccradden, Mckenzie, Mishra, Naraei, Owusu-Bempah, Rosella, Shaw, Upshur and Pinto. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Andrew D. Pinto, andrew.pinto@utoronto.ca
Disclaimer
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.